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Waste Manag. Michie S. Behavioural strategies for reducing covid transmission in the general population. Lancet Respir Med. Proc Natl Acad Sci. Marchiori M. Is risk compensation threatening public health in the covid pandemic? Front Psychol. Slowing down the covid outbreak: changing behaviour by understanding it.

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UK [Internet]. Thiessen T. Covid travel: wearing masks, in these 22 countries most do [Internet]. Al Jazeera. Which countries have made wearing face masks compulsory? News Al Jazeera [Internet]. He E, Laurent L. Masks4all UK. Masks4all UK [Internet]. Pollution Masks [Internet]. Face touching: a frequent habit that has implications for hand hygiene. Am J Infect Control. Emerg Infect Dis. Effectiveness of facemasks to reduce exposure hazards for airborne infections among general populations.

J R Soc Interface. Erumban AA. Lifetimes of machinery and equipment: evidence from Dutch manufacturing. Rev Income Wealth. How to Wear Cloth Face Coverings. Baseline scenario of carbon footprint of polyester T-shirt. J Fiber Bioeng Informatics. LANS Grupo. Office for National Statistics. Office for National Statistics [Internet].

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Fefco Annual Statistics The standards outline the procedure for testing each criterion. The surgical mask is the widely used name for single-use medical face masks. However, when the CEN further published the workshop agreement on community face coverings, companies begun conforming to the newer guidelines, which specify the requirements for masks intended for use in a community setting below.

The standard requires masks to fulfil two levels of leakage evaluation: the filtering material must meet filtration efficiency requirements and the overall mask must not exceed total inward leakage limits through the face seal, the filter and the exhalation valve if applicable.

Filtration efficiency and inward leakage are tested separately against aerosolised sodium chloride and paraffin oil size ranged between 0. Compliance to this standard means that they meet all the performance criteria that allows the user to be protected against solids, water-based aerosols and oil-based aerosols. The UK government recommends that healthcare workers are to use FFP3 classed respirators when caring for patients in situations where there is a high risk of bacterial and viral aerosols.

Due to the stricter requirements on inward leakage and the smaller particle size used for testing, respirators are often assumed to be more effective at filtering viruses than medical masks. Note that not all respirators available for purchase are CE marked but may be certified according to similar standards established by other countries. But these masks are not oil resistant as are FFP masks.

The modified UK government policies on face masks used within the healthcare sector allow non-CE marked single-use medical masks and respirators to be used provided that documentations of their performance meet UK and EU standards. Conventionally, single-use respirators are preferred, particularly in the healthcare setting, due to hygiene requirements.

Reusable variations are available due to their wide use in other sectors such as the construction industry where high levels of aerosols are present. For a respirator to be labelled reusable, it must pass clogging evaluations and maintain performance criteria for more than one shift. Traditionally, reusable respirators are often labelled to be sufficient for use for up to three shifts assuming 8 hours per shift with wipe cleaning between uses and recommends discarding when breathability reduces due to clogging.

Due to increased needs for higher reusability, further reusable respirators have emerged claiming effectiveness for longer periods. Cambridge Mask, which produces respirators made with UK military-grade filtration technology, claims their masks are effective for hours [ 25 ]. Unlike EU standards, CWAs involve no obligations; they are agreements that are open to participation. Thus, this workshop agreement acts as a set of recommendations for mask manufacturing companies to follow.

However, compliance is desirable. As EU standards previously discussed, masks must meet breathability, filtration efficiency and other criteria to be compliant and be deemed a community face covering. It recommends the testing parameters for each performance criteria, in particular for filtration efficiency.

It includes examples of the solid and liquid particles that masks should be tested against. In addition, recommendations for effective use of masks, including putting on and removing masks, social distancing and hand-washing procedures are also provided with the workshop agreement. CWA was published in June after recommendation by many European governments to mandate the wearing of masks in public. As it was advised to use masks alternative to those required by healthcare professionals, with lower infection risks in community settings as one of the reasonings, this workshop agreement outlines mask performance recommendations for lower risk settings.

In addition, as the general advice is to use reusable masks, due to waste considerations, community face coverings emerging on the market are reusable. This standard does not require masks to carry out particle filtration but requires them to fulfil breathability, inward leakage and carbon dioxide inhalation performance criteria. If the facepiece is intended to be used as a filtering device, then performance criteria must be met when the intended filter s are simulated.

The standard states that inhalation valves are not required, although preferred, and require a minimum of one exhalation valve or a similar apparatus. It states that if the facepiece is intended to be used with filters then an inhalation valve is mandatory, either integral to the facepiece or the filter. Filters must fulfil breathability and particle penetration filtration efficiency amongst other criteria.

The performance tests and classification are similar to EN For filtration efficiency, filters must be tested, separately, against aerosolised sodium chloride and paraffin oil sized ranged between 0. The standard mandates the testing of filtration efficiency twice with a hour storage between the tests. This is to calculate the average efficiency and to determine whether the filter can be classed as reusable. For filters to be labelled reusable they must pass clogging evaluations and maintain performance criteria for more than one shift.

Like traditional reusable respirators, reusable filters are often labelled to be sufficient for use for up to three shifts assuming eight hours per shift and are recommended to be discarded when breathability reduces due to clogging. Performance criteria are mostly specified for the complete device, this means the combination of the facepiece and filter s are required to be tested together.

This includes breathability, clogging and practical performance criteria. Inward leakage testing under this standard indicates the leakage through the face seal and asks for facepieces to be tested with FM P3 class filters fitted or with clean air emulating from the facepiece [ 21 ]. As this paper concerns particle filtration, we will not summarise the requirement for gas filtration. As a whole, both EN and EN facepieces with separable filters are used as reusable respirators but are not commonly used to prevent the spread of pandemic.

Their performance with particle filters are equal and higher than EN respirators. One behavioural aspect of using face masks when in public is that they help prevent transmission indirectly by preventing touching of the face, particularly as this is when people are at increased risk of touching a contaminated surface and then touching a mucous membrane i. As summarised in Table A1 , avoiding touching the nose, eyes and mouth is key to preventing the transmission of COVID among the general population.

Of the mucous membranes touched, the most common was the mouth, followed by the nose and eyes. Masks may be able to prevent transmission of the disease by acting as a physical barrier against mouth and nose touching when in public and for those most at risk of coming into contact with an infectious person. However, Casanova et al. Therefore, it is essential that users wash their hands and decontaminate their clothing.

Recommended behaviours to prevent transmission of COVID among the general population taken from [ 55 ]. Many countries have introduced the mandatory use of face masks as a non-clinical intervention to reduce the spread of SAR-Cov-2; this includes the UK. However, a rise in single-use face mask littering has been observed, leading to environmental concerns over their use.

An MFA analysis carried out to complement this paper suggests that if single-use face masks were widely used by UK citizens, then this will amount to 48 kt of plastic 66 kt total waste that would need to be disposed of annually. Although the literature states that, in a clinical setting, single-use face masks are currently more effective than reusable cloth uncertified ones, some experts have suggested that, for general use, reusable masks are just as adequate at preventing transmission when used correctly [ 90 , 91 ].

Reusable face masks can potentially reduce the amount of resultant waste, but, due to differences in material composition and the cleaning processes necessary for reusable face masks, a trade-off in environmental impacts may arise. In addition, some reusable face masks can be complemented with single-use filters to offer greater air filtration.

This may reduce the resultant waste from using single-use face masks, but, equally, a high amount of waste for disposal can be foreseen. This study aims to understand the environmental impacts of both single-use and reusable face masks if they are nationally adopted in the UK. To compare the environmental impacts of using single-use surgical masks and reusable cloth masks nationally to prevent the transmission of infection in the UK.

Five scenarios for the public use of face masks were analysed in this comparative study:. The FU employed for the analysis is 1 year of mask use by the UK population , assuming one face mask used per person per day. This study acknowledges that the use of one mask per person per day may not be reflective of actual mask use during a pandemic in the UK where members of society can be exempt or are practising shielding.

However, there are also members of society who are required to attend work and therefore require the use the face masks. Under recommendation by the PHE and the WHO, the maximum use duration of surgical masks is 6 hours ranging 2—6 hours and should be discarded once moist or wet [ 66 ]. Another study has stated that surgical masks are not effective after 4 hours [ 67 ]. Number of face masks and filters required to support face mask usage in the UK for 1 year. The assumed UK population was Electricity assumptions for the manufacture of masks and filters.

Furthermore, the difference in environmental impact between the different scenarios is relative. A scaling factor can be applied to the environmental impact results to reflect the actual impacts if the average mask use quantity per person changes. Reusable masks were modelled as cotton if used in rotation: if an individual has two masks, it was assumed that only manual washing is possible due to the necessity of frequent washes. It was assumed further that masks can withstand 30 washes in the washing machine [ 40 ] whilst 50 washes by manual washing as hand washing of clothes is a typical method used to preserve clothing items.

A cradle-to-grave study approach was used for this comparison. The scope of the study included the material sourcing of the face masks, transport to the manufacture facility, the manufacture of face masks, transport to the UK, face mask distribution nationwide, and face mask use and final disposal Fig. It was assumed that the face masks both single-use and reusable and filters were manufactured in China before being transported by airfreight to the UK.

The materials and energy assumed to be required for the major manufacturing process of face masks and filters are summarised in Tables A4 and A5. For all five scenarios, the arising waste and treatment of waste from manufacturing was not modelled due to limited data.

Their impact was also assumed to be relative amongst the scenarios. The emissions associated with the life cycle of factory machines were also not modelled. This was because installed equipment is assumed to have a long lifespan, 30 years on average [ 92 ]. The emissions and environmental impacts associated with the fabrication and decommission of equipment would be allocated proportionally over their lifespan, and was, therefore, assumed to be negligible.

Table A6 details the assumptions made in calculating the packaging mass of each packaging component. Both face mask types were assumed to have been manufactured in China before being distributed in the UK, with transport assumptions shown in Table A7. It is acknowledged that the number of reusable masks used in rotation per person depends on personal preference and economic feasibility. Hence, scenarios where two and four face masks are employed per person were both modelled.

Due to the frequency of washing required it was assumed that, with two face masks, manual washing is necessary. With four masks, it was assumed that households could bulk wash their face masks with the usual laundry, and therefore machine washing is possible explanation of assumptions below. The International Scientific Forum on Home Hygiene has published a report on the infection risks associated with clothing [ 47 ].

It states that laundering processes will eliminate contamination from fabric and bedlinen materials. Manual washing Scenarios 2 and 3 : The study assumed that each face mask is washed every two days, due to being used in rotation. Hence, each reusable face mask is modelled to be washed times per FU 1-year timeframe. Because frequent washing would be required, manual washing of face mask was assumed. Once the garment has been cleaned with the mixture, it should be rinsed in a tub of detergent-free water [ 99 ].

The tub volume was not mentioned, but this was assumed to be a 5 l-washing bowl filled to 3 l level. The Office for National Statistics states that an average household comprises 2. Therefore, it was assumed that 2. Hence, each mask requires 2. The total requirements for mask cleaning are shown in Table A8. Requirements for the manual washing of face masks for Scenarios 2 and 3. Note: That users may opt to wash their masks under running water.

We believe that washing masks in tubs of water is more sustainable than washing under running water. Machine washing Scenarios 4 and 5 : This study assumed that, within an average household comprising 2. One wash every 3 days means that each face mask is washed times in 1 year FU. Walser et al. Hence, this study used the parameters assumed by Walser et al.

Requirements for the machine-washing of face masks for Scenarios 4 and 5. With this in mind, the LCA model was not revised as the ranking amongst the scenarios will not change. Landfill and incineration were chosen as the disposal methods, because these are the typical waste destinations for household waste. Single-use face masks and filters are not currently recycled, while textiles are currently unlikely to be recycled. Although packaging can be recycled, plastic film packing, modelled as wrapping for reusable and single-use filters, is not conventionally recycled.

Cardboard is widely recycled; however, this was not modelled due to insufficient data from GaBi [ ] and EcoInvent databases [ ]. For Scenarios 2—5, all face masks were modelled for disposal after 1 year of use. There is no data available on how long each reusable face mask can last; data is required to understand the usability of face masks after frequent washes. It was assumed that the life of each face mask would be similar. In Scenarios 2 and 3, the face masks are washed more frequently than in Scenarios 4 and 5; however, manual washing is typically recommended for delicate garments, because it is gentler on the fabric.

The LCI analysis showed that the use of reusable face masks significantly reduces the amount of waste entering the general waste stream Table A Due to packaging requirements, the total waste accumulated from using single-use face masks nationally amounts to , tonnes. A summary of environmental impact results is presented in Table A The results show that Scenario 4, in which four face masks are employed per person without single-use filters and are machine-washed, generated the lowest environmental impact in all impact categories, except the impact associated with water usage.

The results also showed that when reusable face masks are employed without the additional use of single-use filters, whether they are washed manually or by machine, a lower environmental impact is generated overall. The use of single-use filters with reusable face masks is observed to be environmentally beneficial when compared to single-use face masks, if the masks are machine washed Scenario 5.

Overall environmental impact results for each face mask scenario. Figure A2 highlights the hot-spot analysis carried out on the Climate Change results generated by each scenario. It shows that the transportation of single-use face masks Scenario 1 contributed most to this impact category. This is attributed to the large number of face masks required, and, therefore, an increased level of transportation is necessary, when compared to reusable face masks, to supply to the whole UK population for a year.

The contribution of Mask Manufacture is also higher in Scenario 1, due to the higher quantity of masks required. In Scenario 4, it generated the lowest impact overall, even though a higher number of masks is required than in Scenarios 2 and 3. This suggests that having a higher number of masks in rotation, to allow for machine washing Scenarios 4 and 5 , is more environmentally beneficial than manual washing Scenarios 2 and 3.

The results show that the use of reusable face masks can be environmentally beneficial when compared to using single-use face masks Table A9. However, all reusable face mask scenarios are associated with substantial amounts of water usage. Figure A4 illustrates the processes that contribute to water scarcity. Reusable face mask manufacture Scenarios 2—5 contributed highly to this impact category, when compared to the manufacture of single-use face masks.

This is attributed to the high water requirements of the textile industry for producing cotton fabric. This caused the value generated by Scenario 2 and Scenario 3 to be two orders of magnitude larger than Scenario 1. Climate Change results generated for each scenario of face mask use and single-use face mask supply. The hot-spot analysis showed that for Scenario 1 single-use face mask , the largest contributor to the environmental impact categories was mask transport. This suggests that if the manufacture of single-use face masks is relocated, then the overall impact associated with single-use face masks will be reduced.

China was modelled as the manufacturing location for single-use face masks because it is the biggest supplier of this product. The study therefore presents a realistic representation of the environmental impacts if single-use face masks are to be employed for everyday use in the UK. However, to combat the shortage of single-use face mask supply, textile companies have begun to convert their production lines to enable the production of face masks.

This means the supply chain of face masks may change in the future. Scenario 1 was further modelled to stipulate future supplies of single-use face masks Table A Turkey was assumed to be a viable location for the production of single-use face masks because it is the second biggest supplier of textiles after China [ ] and one of the biggest producers of non-woven products in Europe [ ].

Furthermore, Triton Market Research [ ] showed that major companies that produce polypropylene PP non-woven products include those manufactured in Turkey. Hence, the material required to produce face masks in Turkey was assumed to have been locally sourced. Further modelling of Scenario 1 with changes made to production location and hence supply distances. Hence, it is deemed likely that the UK will need to import these materials in order to manufacture single-use face masks.

Thus, if face mask production is relocated to the UK, and therefore the emissions associated with importing the product are eliminated, there will be emissions associated with importing raw materials. As China and Turkey are the largest suppliers of textiles [ ], it was assumed that the UK will import the materials necessary for face mask production from either country. Scenarios S1b and S1c were modelled to explore the potential range of environmental impacts associated with producing in the UK Table A For Scenarios S1a—S1c, it was assumed that packaging for face masks is manufactured locally.

This is because cardboard is largely produced in both Turkey and the UK [ ]. A summary of the environmental impact results generated from modelling single-use face mask production from Scenario 1 in Turkey and the UK are highlighted in Table A The results were compared to the impacts generated by Scenario 1, where single-use face masks are manufactured in China, and Scenario 4, where reusable face masks manufactured in China are used in rotation and machine washed.

Results show that, by relocating single-use face mask production from China to Turkey and the UK, the environmental impacts will reduce by Scenario 1a manufacturing in Turkey becomes the most environmentally preferred, as it generated the lowest impact towards most environmental impact categories including Climate Change and Resource Use. Overall environmental impact results for the new single-use face masks supply scenarios compared to Scenario 4 use of four reusable masks in rotation and machine-washed.

Hot-spot analyses were carried out on the Climate Change results for Scenario 1a—1c, and were compared with all the other face mask use scenarios. Figure A4 shows that the emissions associated with Mask Transport to the UK are significantly reduced by relocating single-use face mask manufacturing to Turkey. It also illustrates that the impacts generated from Mask Manufacture for Scenarios 1, 1a and 1c are similar, and are lower than in Scenario 1b.

Further analysis showed that the difference in Mask Manufacture results for Scenario 1 and the sub-scenarios is dependent on the delivery of materials for face mask production. Scenario 1b assumed that the materials would be sourced and imported from China. This showed that the transportation of materials to the UK by airfreight contributes The materials transport for face mask manufacture contributed 0. Figure A4 also suggests that if single-use face masks are manufactured in Turkey and the UK with materials sourced in Turkey , then machine washing reusable face masks Scenario 4 is the only scenario where reusable masks are environmentally comparable for UK-wide use.

The manual washing of face masks without the use of single-use filters Scenario 2 and the machine washing of face masks with the use of single-use filters Scenario 5 are only preferable to single-use face masks if the materials are supplied from China. The comparative study explored the environmental impact differences between using a face mask that is designed to be disposed of after one use with different scenarios in which face masks are designed to be washed and reused.

The reusing of single-use face masks was not analysed. This is because there are currently no protocols for reusing face masks designed to be used once. Hence, not all face mask use scenarios were explored as part of this study. Equally, a limitation of this comparative study is the washing of face masks. Different techniques may be employed at individual households; for instance, cold washing and other machine-washing techniques.

It is acknowledged that cold washing will reduce the thermal energy use to heat water in Scenarios 2 and 3. However, the current guidelines for eliminating viruses suggest the use of hot water and soap. More data is needed about the effectiveness of using cold water and soap for removing viruses before this recommendation can be made. In Scenarios 2—5, each face mask was assumed to withstand 30—50 washes.

It is acknowledged that the products may not withstand this amount of washing, or may be misplaced or damaged by other means. If a face mask has a life of 20 washes, then 18 masks are necessary for one full year of face mask use. Further analysis was carried out on Scenario 4 to understand the environmental impact of additional supplies of masks.

Assuming that the total amount of machine washes per year stays constant and filters continue not to be used, then up to 48 reusable face masks 44 additional masks can be supplied per person before the impact on Climate Change exceeds the generated value for Scenario 1. Table A14 highlights the maximum number of reusable masks per person for all other environmental impact categories and the average limit is calculated to be Thus, depending on which impact category is of most interest, an additional 21 masks can be supplied over 1 year of mask use, such that Scenario 4 retains its environmental superiority over Scenario 1 single-mask use.

With 25 masks, this reduces the amount of washing per mask to 15 washes, which is below the lower limit of a t-shirt life stated by Walser et al. The maximum number of reusable masks in use per person per year without additional filter use before the environmental impact exceeds the generated value of using single-use masks Scenario 1.

Single-use face masks were modelled as being manufactured in China, Turkey and the UK in order to explore the potential reduction in environmental impacts if production was relocated away from China. Reusable face masks Scenario 2—5 were also assumed to be imported from China, but their production in Turkey or the UK was not modelled.

However, there is advice available on how to make reusable face masks at home and therefore the manufacture of face masks in China may not be necessary. This can reduce the overall environmental impact of all reusable face mask scenarios especially if masks are made with waste clothing. The manufacturing waste that would arise and the associated waste disposal treatments were not modelled in this comparative study, due to the limited data available.

From this, it was inferred that the percentage contribution from manufacturing waste treatment should be negligible. Lastly, this study assumes that every face mask scenario has an equal functionality in preventing the transmission of infection. The effectiveness of face mask use cannot be evaluated using life cycle assessment. A highly developed review by MacIntyre and Chugtai [ 14 ] suggests that the effectiveness of face masks in providing protection against infections is subject to compliance, complementary interventions and early use.

Thus, although reusable face masks are said to be less effective in a high-risk setting, when used as a precautionary intervention in conjunction with social distancing and regular hand washing, they should have the same effect as single-use face masks. The comparative study results show that using a higher number of reusable face masks, in rotation to allow for machine washing, is the most favourable method of using face masks from an environmental perspective.

The use of filters with reusable face masks is discouraged, but can generate a lower environmental impact when compared to single-use face masks if face masks are machine-washed. Currently, sourcing materials and face masks from China are deemed the most realistic option. However, analyses show that if the manufacture of single-use face masks can be relocated to Turkey and the UK then the environment impact of using of single-use masks in the UK will reduce, but using reusable face masks in rotation and machine washing them Scenario 4 is still preferable for the environment.

Stage contribution to each environmental impact category for Scenario 1 — using single-use masks in the UK manufactured in China Appendix 4. Stage contribution to each environmental impact category for Scenario 2 — using reusable masks, manually washed in the UK. Stage contribution to each environmental impact category for Scenario 3 — using reusable masks with single use filters, manually washed in the UK.

Stage contribution to each environmental impact category for Scenario 4 — using reusable masks, machine washed in the UK. Stage contribution to each environmental impact category for Scenario 5 — using reusable masks with single use filters, machine-washed in the UK.

Stage contribution to each environmental impact category for Scenario 1a — using single-use masks in the UK mask manufactured in Turkey. Stage contribution to each environmental impact category for Scenario 1b — Using single-use masks in the UK mask manufactured in UK, materials imported from China. Stage contribution to each environmental impact category for Scenario 1c — using single-use masks in the UK mask manufactured in UK, materials imported from Turkey.

Published under Creative Commons Attribution 4. Users are allowed to share copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format and adapt remix, transform, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially , as long as the authors and the publisher are explicitly identified and properly acknowledged as the original source. Data availability:. Version and Review History. Reviewed by Beatrice Smyth. Review article Invite someone to review.

Introduction Like many countries, the UK is currently mandating the wearing of face masks by the general public in various settings, including on public transport and in shops. Table 1. BFE: bacterial filtration efficiency. Materials and their filtration efficiency — considerations for reusable cloth masks The materials used to construct the filtering component of masks will determine filtration efficiency Fig.

Table 2. Behavioural considerations of single-use and reusable masks Public behaviour towards mask use is a major contributing factor towards the overall effectiveness of masks in slowing the spread of infection [ 6 ]. Capability Forgetfulness is a common barrier related to adherence to the behaviours associated with health e.

Opportunity Sociocultural paradigms can impact adherence to mask use. Motivation Evidence related to other single-use and reusable hygiene products suggest that single-use may be preferable for some individuals due to the convenience it offers after use. Table 3. Environmental assessment of face masks Material flow analysis MFA and life cycle assessment LCA were carried out to explore the potential environmental impact of the whole UK population using either single-use masks or reusable cotton face masks for 1 year.

Table 4. Cost comparison With a growing number of countries making the wearing of face masks outside of the home compulsory, price increases and limits on supply are to be expected. Table 5. Product The initial cost of buying any type of face mask represents the highest cost in the face mask life cycle. Washing The washing cost is only attributed to a reusable face mask. Disposal Given that waste PPE is conventionally placed in mixed general waste at a household level, both single-use and reusable face masks are assumed to follow the same end-of-life pathway.

Discussion and conclusions Many governments around the world have introduced policies that recommend or mandate the wearing of masks to slow the spread of COVID Fig. June RMS. Appendix 2: Recommendations to Prevent Pathogen Transmission One behavioural aspect of using face masks when in public is that they help prevent transmission indirectly by preventing touching of the face, particularly as this is when people are at increased risk of touching a contaminated surface and then touching a mucous membrane i.

Table A1. Categories of recommended behaviours Enabling behaviours 1. Maintain hygiene a. Avoid touching a. Social distancing a. Table A2. Summary of scenarios compared in the comparative study. Goal To compare the environmental impacts of using single-use surgical masks and reusable cloth masks nationally to prevent the transmission of infection in the UK. Scope Five scenarios for the public use of face masks were analysed in this comparative study: The FU employed for the analysis is 1 year of mask use by the UK population , assuming one face mask used per person per day.

Table A3. Table A4. Material of construction and mass used to model each product. Table A5. FU: functional unit. Cradle-to-grave system boundary for each face mask use scenario. Manufacturing assumptions It was assumed that the face masks both single-use and reusable and filters were manufactured in China before being transported by airfreight to the UK.

Table A6. Packaging assumptions for each scenario. Transport assumptions Both face mask types were assumed to have been manufactured in China before being distributed in the UK, with transport assumptions shown in Table A7. Table A7. Transport assumptions for masks and filters for all scenarios. Mode of transport Distance km Notes Materials to manufacturing facility and facility to terminal Truck Assumed materials sourced locally China to UK Airfreight [ 98 ] Mask distribution Truck Assumed distribution start from one UK terminal Mask and filters to disposal sites Truck Assumed local authority collection for disposal.

Reuse assumptions MacIntyre et al. Table A8. Table A9. Table A FU, functional unit. Scenario 1 — single-use masks Scenario 2 — reusable masks manual washing Scenario 3 — reusable mask with single-use filters Scenario 4 — reusable masks machine washing Scenario 5 — reusable masks with single-use filters machine washing EF 3.

Green indicates the lowest results generated; red indicates the highest results generated. Water Scarcity results generated by each face mask scenario. Further study on single-use mask manufacture The hot-spot analysis showed that for Scenario 1 single-use face mask , the largest contributor to the environmental impact categories was mask transport. Further results A summary of the environmental impact results generated from modelling single-use face mask production from Scenario 1 in Turkey and the UK are highlighted in Table A S1 — single-use masks, manufactured China S4 — reusable masks, machine washed, manufactured in China S1a — single-use masks, manufactured in Turkey S1b — single-use masks, manufactured in UK materials from China S1c — single-use masks, manufactured in UK materials from Turkey EF 3.

Limitations and discussion The comparative study explored the environmental impact differences between using a face mask that is designed to be disposed of after one use with different scenarios in which face masks are designed to be washed and reused. Impact category Number of reusable masks per person EF 3. Conclusion The comparative study results show that using a higher number of reusable face masks, in rotation to allow for machine washing, is the most favourable method of using face masks from an environmental perspective.

Appendix 4 Table A ISSN Electronic : DOI: SO-VID: d95dbaa7f1-f2b7db2f7. License: Published under Creative Commons Attribution 4. Page count Figures : 8, Tables : 27, References : , Pages : Subject: Research Article. Comment on this article Sign in to comment. Surgical mask. Multilayer of non-woven fabric typically pleated, with nose wire and ear loops Example: Layer 1 — PP non-woven spunbond Layer 2 — PP non-woven melt blown Layer 3 — PP non-woven spunbond.

Type I is only recommended for public use to reduce spread of pandemic. Respirator — NR. Can include nose foam cushioning, rubber facial seal and exhalation valve for better fit and breathability Example: Layer 1 — PP non-woven spunbond Layer 2 — cotton or PP non-woven melt blown optional Layer 3 — PP non-woven melt blown Layer 4 — PP non-woven melt blown Layer 5 — PP non-woven spunbond.

The particle size used for testing ranges 0. Community face coverings. Can include nose wire Materials can vary depending on intended reuse and filtration efficiency Examples: Polyester Bamboo Cotton. Respirator — R. Multilayer like the non-reusable version but with extra structural support layer 2 , which also gives better fit.

Likely to include rubber facial seal and nose foam cushioning. Can include exhalation valve. Although labelled as reusable, they often say reused up to two or three shifts 8 hour shift [ 24 ]. Newer masks on the market can state up to 6 months is possible [ 25 ] Specified by the standard, manufacturer must state the cleaning protocol of the mask.

Most recommend wipe cleaning with suitable disinfectants of the surface layers between shifts. Facepiece with designated filters. Both mask types requires exhalation valves while EN masks are designed with an inhalation valve as well. Product involves head straps and likely requires sealant material where the facepiece meets the face. Can including cushioning for comfort. Mask: EN EN Mask: Max. Inward leakage for both masks measures leakage through the face seal [ 20 , 21 ].

For facepieces, manufacturers mostly recommend wipe cleaning with suitable disinfectants between use. Filter: Filters are made of multilayers of non-woven spunbond and melt blown fabric. For filters, they are labelled like EN respirators where the number of shifts they can be used for is specified. Often stated to be two or three shifts. Mask: Typically two to three layers of fabric with ear loop. Can be pleated or cut to give better fit around the face.

The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter snapped this false-colour picture of the red planet's Victoria Crater. When this photo was taken on 3 October, the rover Opportunity was sitting on the edge of the kilometre-wide crater, although it can't be seen at this scale. This is the quarter-of-a-millionth image from the International Space Station, taken on 15 August.

The ever-increasing amount of information from space is changing the way we look at ourselves — and encouraging people to abandon the crumpled road maps in the their gloveboxes in favour of satellite navigation. A total solar eclipse is not that rare. But it still seems miraculous that the Sun could ever disappear, and images of the event have a unique power.

This one was taken on 29 March by Fred Espenak in Libya. On 21 September, the Mars Express satellite took this image of a cluster of mountains that in a famous Viking photo inset looked eerily like a face. Human beings' innate tendency to see patterns may be at the heart of many scientific discoveries, but we also have it to thank for seeing faces in out-of-focus mountains and crouching leopards in the backyard shrubbery.

The ozone hole is breaking records again. It was as large this September as it has ever been, at Long term, the hole is still shrinking, but year-on-year variability can mask this gradual process. Over the course of this year it has slowly been filled up with all manner of detectors, and work will continue until it's ready to go live sometime in November Its constructors hope that results from the detectors will allow them to infer the presence of such exotic particles as the Higgs boson.

A vortex of flame swirls inside a combustion chamber. The aim was to make such motors more efficient, but the team has also shown the beauty of their inner workings. This butterfly, which appeared in November, is actually on a butterfly's wing. The insect was engineered so that its cells expressed a green fluorescent dye when a particular heat-sensitive protein was activated.

A laser was then used to induce heat shock and etch out the pattern. In October , the Mona Lisa was transported from her home in the Louvre to the Centre for Research and Restoration of the Museums of France in Paris for its first thorough scientific examination. Published in September, this three-dimensional laser scan of the painting's surface shows the slight warping of the wood on which Leonardo painted years ago.

Ditch the pipette and do your DNA sequencing at the nanolitre scale with this stylish mm wafer, created by Robert Blazej and his colleagues at the University of California, Berkeley, and unveiled in May. Form follows function in a design that could easily be from an album cover or the floor of a nightclub. Announced in June, the composition of this film makes it ultra-thin 35 nanometres thick , ultra-strong it can hold 70, times its own weight and ultra-flexible it can be sucked into a hole 30, times smaller than itself.

You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar. Parthenogenesis in Komodo dragons. Pluto loses planet status. Fish fight breaks out over tiny catch. Mr Eclipse. Butterfly paper. More on the nano-film. Welcome Trust Biomedical Image Awards. Reprints and Permissions. Marris, E. Brilliant display. Nature , — Download citation. Published : 21 December Issue Date : 21 December Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:.

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative. Advanced search. Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily. Skip to main content Thank you for visiting nature. Download PDF. Credit: K. Credit: B. Credit: G. Credit: I. Mosquito in flight. Credit: H. World's smallest fish Credit: M. The tenth planet

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