Polish lithuanian commonwealth flag

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This political system unusual for its time stemmed from the ascendance of the szlachta noble class over other social classes and over the political system of monarchy. In time, the szlachta accumulated enough privileges such as those established by the Nihil novi Act of that no monarch could hope to break the szlachta's grip on power. The Commonwealth's political system is difficult to fit into a simple category, but it can be tentatively described as a mixture of:.

The end of the Jagiellonian dynasty in — after nearly two centuries — disrupted the fragile equilibrium of the Commonwealth's government. Power increasingly slipped away from the central government to the nobility. When presented with periodic opportunities to fill the throne, the szlachta exhibited a preference for foreign candidates who would not establish a strong and long-lasting dynasty.

This policy often produced monarchs who were either totally ineffective or in constant debilitating conflict with the nobility. This was especially visible in the policies and actions of the first two elected kings from the Swedish House of Vasa , whose politics brought the Commonwealth into conflict with Sweden, culminating in the war known as the Deluge , one of the events that mark the end of the Commonwealth's Golden Age and the beginning of the Commonwealth's decline.

The Zebrzydowski Rebellion — marked a substantial increase in the power of the Polish magnates , and the transformation of szlachta democracy into magnate oligarchy. The Commonwealth's political system was vulnerable to outside interference, as Sejm deputies bribed [] [] by foreign powers might use their liberum veto to block attempted reforms. This sapped the Commonwealth and plunged it into political paralysis and anarchy for over a century, from the midth century to the end of the 18th, while its neighbours stabilized their internal affairs and increased their military might.

The Commonwealth did eventually make a serious effort to reform its political system, adopting in the Constitution of 3 May , which historian Norman Davies calls the first of its kind in Europe. These reforms came too late, however, as the Commonwealth was immediately invaded from all sides by its neighbors, which had been content to leave the Commonwealth alone as a weak buffer state, but reacted strongly to attempts by king Stanislaus Augustus and other reformers to strengthen the country.

Catherine the Great regarded the May constitution as fatal to her influence [] and declared the Polish constitution Jacobinical. The economy of the Commonwealth was predominantly based on agricultural output and trade, though there was an abundance of artisan workshops and manufactories — notably paper mills , leather tanneries , ironworks , glassworks and brickyards.

Foreign coins in the form of ducats , thalers and shillings were widely accepted and exchanged. The country played a significant role in the supply of Western Europe by the export of grain rye , cattle oxen , furs, timber, linen , cannabis , ash , tar , carminic acid and amber.

The agricultural sector was dominated by feudalism based on the plantation system serfs. Typically a nobleman's landholding comprised a folwark , a large farmstead worked by serfs to produce surpluses for internal and external trade. This economic arrangement worked well for the ruling classes and nobles in the early years of the Commonwealth, which was one of the most prosperous eras of the grain trade. Trade relationships were disrupted by the wars, and the Commonwealth proved unable to improve its transport infrastructure or its agricultural practices.

The rivers had relatively developed infrastructure, with river ports and granaries. Urban population of the Commonwealth was low compared to Western Europe. Exact numbers depend on calculation methods. Some of the largest trade fairs in the Commonwealth were held at Lublin. Several ancient trading routes such as the Amber Road Pic.

The military in the Polish—Lithuanian Commonwealth evolved from the merger of the armies from the Polish Kingdom and from the Grand Lithuanian Duchy, though each state maintained its own division. Monarchs could not declare war or summon an army without the consent of the Sejm parliament or the Senate.

The most prestigious formation of the two respective armes were their 16th- and 17th-century heavy cavalry in the form of Winged Hussars husaria , whereas the Polish Royal Guards and Lithuanian Guards [ pl ] were the elite of the infantry ; the regiments were supervised by the king and his family.

The armies of those states differed from the organization common in other parts of Europe; according to Bardach, the mercenary formations wojsko najemne , common in Western Europe , never gained widespread popularity in Poland. It differed from other European mercenary formations in that it was commanded by Polish officers, and dissolved after the conflict has ended.

Several years before the Union of Lublin, the Polish obrona potoczna was reformed, as the Sejm national parliament of Poland legislated in — the creation of wojsko kwarciane , named after kwarta tax levied on the royal lands for the purpose of maintaining this formation. Following the end of the Commonwealth, the Polish-Lithuanian military tradition would be continued by the Napoleonic Polish Legions and the Army of the Duchy of Warsaw.

The Commonwealth was an important European center for the development of modern social and political ideas. It was famous for its rare quasi-democratic political system, praised by philosophers , and during the Counter-Reformation was known for near-unparalleled religious tolerance , with peacefully coexisting Roman Catholic , Jewish , Orthodox Christian , Protestant and Muslim Sufi communities. In the 18th century, the French Catholic Rulhiere wrote of 16th century Poland: "This country, which in our day we have seen divided on the pretext of religion, is the first state in Europe that exemplified tolerance.

In this state, mosques arose between churches and synagogues. With its political system, the Commonwealth gave birth to political philosophers such as Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski — Pic. In the Czech teacher, scientist, educator, and writer John Amos Comenius took refuge in the Commonwealth, when the Protestants were persecuted under the Counter Reformation.

The works of many Commonwealth authors are considered classics, including those of Jan Kochanowski Pic. Many szlachta members wrote memoirs and diaries. The art and music of the Commonwealth was largely shaped by prevailing European trends, though the country's minorities, foreigners as well as native folk cultures also contributed to its versatile nature.

A common art form of the Sarmatian period were coffin portraits portrety trumienne used in funerals and other important ceremonies. Music was a common feature of religious and secular events. To that end many noblemen founded church and school choirs, and employed their own ensembles of musicians.

Both foreign and domestic composers were active in the Commonwealth. The architecture of the cities in the Polish—Lithuanian Commonwealth reflected a combination of Polish, German and Italian trends. Italian Mannerism or the Late Renaissance had a profound impact on traditional burgher architecture which can be observed to this day — castles and tenements were fitted with central Italianate courtyards composed of arched loggias , colonnades, bay windows , balconies, portals and ornamental balustrades.

Another characteristic is the common usage of black marble. Casimir Chapel of the Vilnius Cathedral and Vasa Chapel at Wawel Cathedral were extensively decorated with black marble, which became popular after the midth century. Magnates often undertook construction projects as monuments to themselves: churches, cathedrals, monasteries Pic.

The largest projects involved entire towns, although in time many of them would lapse into obscurity or were abandoned. These towns were generally named after the sponsoring magnate. The magnates throughout Poland competed with the kings.

Lesser nobility resided in country manor houses known as dworek. Neoclassicism replaced Baroque by the second half of the 18th century — the last ruler of the Poland—Lithuania, Stanislaus II Augustus , greatly admired the classical architecture of Ancient Rome and promoted it as a symbol of the Polish Enlightenment.

Anne's Church in Warsaw are part of the neoclassical legacy of the former Commonwealth. The prevalent ideology of the szlachta became " Sarmatism ", named after the Sarmatians , alleged ancestors of the Poles. In its early, idealistic form, Sarmatism represented a positive cultural movement: it supported religious belief, honesty, national pride, courage, equality and freedom.

In time, however, it became distorted. Criticism, often one-sided and exaggerated, was used by the Polish reformists to push for radical changes. This self-deprecation was accompanied by works of German, Russian and Austrian historians, who tried to prove that it was Poland itself that was to blame for its fall.

The Polish—Lithuanian Commonwealth was immensely multicultural throughout its existence — it comprised countless religious identities and ethnic minorities inhabiting the country's vast territory. There was a tendency for the people from the more densely inhabited western territories to migrate eastwards.

A sudden change in the country's demographics occurred in the midth century. Despite guaranteed religious tolerance , gradual Polonization and Counter-Reformation sought to minimize the Commonwealth's diversity; the aim was to root out some minorities by imposing the Polish language , Latin , Polish culture and the Roman Catholic religion where possible. The Warsaw Confederation signed on 28 January secured the rights of minorities and religions; [] it allowed all persons to worship any faith freely, though religious tolerance varied at times.

As outlined by Norman Davies , "the wording and substance of the declaration of the Confederation of Warsaw of were extraordinary with regards to prevailing conditions elsewhere in Europe; and they governed the principles of religious life in the Republic for over two hundred years.

Poland retained religious freedom laws during an era when religious persecution was an everyday occurrence in the rest of Europe. No one is a censor here. To be Polish , in remote and multi-ethnic parts of the Commonwealth, was then much less an index of ethnicity than of religion and rank ; it was a designation largely reserved for the landed noble class szlachta , which included Poles, but also many members of non-Polish origin who converted to Catholicism in increasing numbers with each following generation.

For the non-Polish noble such conversion meant a final step of Polonization that followed the adoption of the Polish language and culture. As a result, in the eastern territories a Polish or Polonized aristocracy dominated a peasantry whose great majority was neither Polish nor Catholic. Moreover, the decades of peace brought huge colonization efforts to the eastern territories nowadays roughly western and central Ukraine , [] heightening the tensions among nobles , Jews , Cossacks traditionally Orthodox , Polish and Ruthenian peasants.

When the latter, deprived of their native protectors among the Ruthenian nobility, turned for protection to cossacks that facilitated violence which in the end broke the Commonwealth. The tensions were aggravated by conflicts between Eastern Orthodoxy and the Greek Catholic Church following the Union of Brest , overall discrimination of Orthodox religions by dominant Catholicism, [] and several Cossack uprisings. In the west and north, many cities had sizable German minorities, often belonging to Lutheran or Reformed churches.

Until the Reformation , the szlachta were mostly Catholics Pic. However, many noble families quickly adopted the Reformed religion. After the Counter-Reformation , when the Catholic Church regained power in Poland, the szlachta became almost exclusively Catholic.

The Crown had about double the population of Lithuania and five times the income of the latter's treasury. As with other countries, the borders, area and population of the Commonwealth varied over time. After the Peace of Jam Zapolski , the Commonwealth had approximately , km 2 area and a population of 7. The Duchy of Warsaw , established in by Napoleon Bonaparte , traced its origins to the Commonwealth.

While the term "Poland" was also commonly used to denote this whole polity, Poland was in fact only part of a greater whole — the Polish—Lithuanian Commonwealth, which comprised primarily two parts:. Each voivodeship was governed by a Voivode wojewoda , governor. Voivodeships were further divided into starostwa , each starostwo being governed by a starosta. Cities were governed by castellans. There were frequent exceptions to these rules, often involving the ziemia subunit of administration.

Other notable parts of the Commonwealth, without respect to region or voivodeship divisions, include:. Commonwealth borders shifted with wars and treaties, sometimes several times in a decade, especially in the eastern and southern parts. In the 16th century, the Polish bishop and cartographer Martin Kromer , who studied in Bologna , published a Latin atlas , entitled Poland: about Its Location, People, Culture, Offices and the Polish Commonwealth , which was regarded as one of the most comprehensive guides to the country.

Kromer's works and other contemporary maps, such as those of Gerardus Mercator , show the Commonwealth as mostly plains. The Commonwealth's southeastern part, the Kresy , was famous for its steppes. The Carpathian Mountains formed part of the southern border, with the Tatra Mountain chain the highest, and the Baltic Sea formed the Commonwealth's northern border.

As with most European countries at the time, the Commonwealth had extensive forest cover, especially in the east. Painted by Angelika Kauffmann in Example of the merchant architecture: Konopnica's tenement house in Lublin , Hussars' armours, first half of the 17th century. De republica emendanda by Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski , proposed a deep programme of reforms of the state, society and church. Title page of Treny by Jan Kochanowski , a series of elegies upon the death of his beloved daughter, is an acknowledged masterpiece.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Royal Banner c. Royal Coat of arms. The Polish—Lithuanian Commonwealth green with vassal states light green at their peak in German Lithuanian Ruthenian see Languages section for details. Parliamentary hereditary monarchy [4] [5] — Parliamentary elective monarchy [4] [5] [6] —; — Parliamentary constitutional monarchy [7] — Main articles: History of the Polish—Lithuanian Commonwealth — , — , and — Main article: Union of Lublin.

Main article: Polish Golden Age. Main articles: Swedish Deluge and Battle of Vienna Main article: Enlightenment in Poland. Main article: Partitions of Poland. See also: Offices in the Polish—Lithuanian Commonwealth. Main article: Golden Liberty. Main article: Military of the Polish—Lithuanian Commonwealth. Winged Hussars were a heavy cavalry formation serving the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland throughout the 16th and 17th centuries.

Krakow Militia, a local guard formation in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth during the 16th and 17th centuries. Polonaise dress left and the Polish bed right , both from the 18th century. Main article: Baroque in Poland—Lithuania. Main articles: Szlachta and Sarmatism. Sarmatian style for men; moustache, red kontusz coat, gold-silk pas with blue sash of the Order of the White Eagle. Further information: Historical demographics of Poland. Main article: Warsaw Confederation. The Greek-Catholic St.

The church in Kamieniec Podolski was converted into a mosque during the Turkish occupation between and , with the meter minaret being added at that time. Main article: Intermarium. Main article: Administrative division of the Polish—Lithuanian Commonwealth. Crown of the Kingdom of Poland. Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Duchy of Livonia. Duchy of Prussia , Polish fief.

Duchy of Courland and Semigallia , Commonwealth fief. Part of a series on the. Robert Burton , in his The Anatomy of Melancholy , first published in , writes of Poland: "Poland is a receptacle of all religions, where Samosetans, Socinians, Photinians Archived from the original on 12 March Retrieved 29 November ISBN Bureau of national literature , inc.

The price of freedom p. Retrieved 13 August A history of the great war. Bureau of national literature, inc. But Poland, which retained possession of the Lithuanian lands it had seized, had greater representation in the diet and became the dominant partner. A History of Poland, Vol. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Quoting from Sarmatian Review academic journal mission statement: "Polish—Lithuanian Commonwealth was Retrieved 26 June The Slavs in European History and Civilization.

Rutgers University Press. A social and religious history of the Jews. Columbia University Press. Economic History Review 30 :1 March , pp. Constitutions of the World. Fred B. The Federalist Papers. Penguin Classics. May second oldest constitution. Europe: A History. Oxford University Press.

Retrieved 27 October Wrzesnia II, Warszawa , s. Tauris Publishers. Polish Institute of Arts and Sciences of America. Historia dla Maturzysty. The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, — Yale University Press. Historia Polski do roku. Polska: Mada. Historia Polski — Warsaw: PWN. Dziennik Literacki in Polish.

The lower nobility was now included in the selection process, and the power of the monarch was further circumscribed in favor of the expanded noble class. From that point, the king was effectively a partner with the noble class and constantly supervised by a group of senators. Poland — The Historical Setting. Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress. Archived from the original on June 4, Retrieved July 15, Warszawa: PWN. Dzieje Polski in Polish. Retrieved 9 January Retrieved 16 November Warszawa Warsaw : Uniwersytet Warszawski.

Retrieved 3 May Warrior Kings of Sweden. McFarland, Incorporated, Publishers. Retrieved 14 January Constitutions, Elections, and Legislatures of Poland, — University Press of America. Retrieved 1 February The First Thousand Years. US: Cornell University Press. Retrieved 18 February Tsars and Imposters. Russia's Time of Troubles. New York: Algora. CUP Archive. Retrieved 11 April The Causes of War. Portland: Bloomsbury Publishing. The History of Modern Europe. From the Fall of Constantinople, in , to the War in the Crimea, in Volume 2.

London: J. Retrieved 20 February ISBN X. Polska: Panstwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe. Retrieved 8 January Warsaw: PW "Wiedza Poweszechna". Duiker, Jackson J. Spielvogel Cengage Learning. Polska: Wydawnictwo Literackie. Studia staropolskie.

Polska: Zielona Sowa. Historia Polski. Polska: Znak. Dzieje kultury polskiej. Czasy nowsze do roku Polska: Wiedza Powszechna. The Northern Wars. War, State and Society in Northeastern Europe — Harlow: Longman. A Global Chronology of Conflict, Vol. Cambridge University Press. Migrants and citizens: demographic change in the European state system. Cornell University Press. Bellona Publishing. Retrieved 26 September Polska: PWN. God's Playground: to the present.

Central European University Press. Polska: Naukowe Wydawn. Retrieved 13 February Dictionary of Quotations Classical. BiblioBazaar, LLC. McHugh Retrieved 3 September Ecclesiastical Unification. Institutum Orientalium Studiorum. Stockholm University. Harlow, England; New York: Longman's.

Royal Castle, Warsaw , Warsaw, 18th century. Dresden Cathedral , Dresden, 18th century. Albertina , Vienna , 18th century. Theatine Church , Munich , 18th century. Adam Mickiewicz Monument, Lviv , From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Post milestone, Pirna , Town hall, Wilsdruff , 18th century. Catholic church, Nancy , 18th century. Church of the Holy Spirit, Vilnius , 18th century.

Walderdorff Palace, Trier , 18th century. Retrieved 22 May Retrieved 18 July Jagiellonian Library. Retrieved 21 August National symbols of Poland. Coat of arms Flag and colors Anthem. Names of Poland Rzeczpospolita. Hidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from December CS1 Lithuanian-language sources lt CS1 maint: date format CS1 Polish-language sources pl Commons category link is on Wikidata.

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